The Olive in Mediterranean Culture

”a land of wheat, and barley, and vines, and fig trees, and pomegranates; a land of oil olive, and honey;” Deuteronomy 8:8 ”corn, wine, or oil” Deuteronomy 28:51

These two quotations, especially the second, account for the basic crops and menu of inhabitants of the Mediterranean basin in Biblical times. However, they also have a much larger and wider meaning. These crops were first domesticated in the Fertile Crescent region, creating one of this region’s greatest benefits to the human race: cultivated wheat, vines and olives. The three basic foodstuffs produced from these crops - bread, wine and olive oil - formed the basis of religious rituals in the Eastern Mediterranean areas and in rituals of other religions whose origins can be traced back to these areas.

Symbols
The dove bringing the olive branch to Noah is the internationally recognized symbol of peace (Genesis 8:11). In the biblical parable of Jotham (Judges 9: 8-9), the trees first approached the olive tree with the request to reign over them. The vine and olive were ancient symbols of wealth: “Thy wife shall be as a fruitful vine by the sides of thine house: thy children like olive plants round about thy table” (Psalms 128:3), and the olive tree became a symbol of the people of Israel  “A green olive tree, fair, and of goodly fruit” (Jeremiah 11:16).

Purity and Sanctification
Olive oil was served in the Holy Temple and was used as fuel for the candelabra. In religious ritual, its main purpose was for purity and sanctification. This was also the custom in the Hittite Empire where oil was used to anoint kings, brides and army officers before battle. Olive oil served as the main ingredient for  “holy anointing oil” (Exodus 30:25). Olive oil was used to anoint priests and kings “Then shalt thou take the anointing oil, and pour it upon his head, and anoint him.” (Exodus 29:7).  In the future, should the Messiah arrive, he will be anointed using olive oil. The Christian name “Christos”,  is actually “Messiah’ translated into Greek. Even today, olive oil is used to anoint English monarchs at their coronation ceremonies, stating that this was the method used to anoint kings, priests and prophets. It is also stated at the coronation ceremony that this was the method used by Zadok the High Priest and Nathan the Prophet to anoint King Solomon.

The annual calendar of the Asaic people, writers of the Dead Sea Scrolls had three harvest festivals: “Wheat Harvest Festival”. Fifty days later they celebrated the “Wine Harvest Festival”, and finally fifty days after that, they celebrated the  “Oil Harvest Festival”

Cosmetics 
It seems that during ancient times, the main use for olive oil was as an ingredient in cosmetic production rather than as a food.

Oil produced from un-ripened olives was considered special. This oil had a deep green shade and had a bitter flavor. In Latin it was called Oleum Omphacium, green oil, summer oil. It is also described in the Talmud.

Growing and Harvesting
It is apparent from ancient literature that growing methods have not changed much over the generations. Then and now, a wild olive seedling is sometimes used for grafting. The New Testament relates to the grafting of a wild seedling on a domesticated tree: “And if some of the branches be broken off, and thou, being a wild olive tree, wert graffed in among them, and with them partakest of the root and fatness of the olive tree” (Romans 11:17) The Roman author Plenius records planting distances of 25 to 30 feet, identical to modern planting methods. Olives are harvested by hand and with the aid of sticks. A Greek painting dating back to the 6th Century B.C. portrays similar methods. The Old Testament demands that hand harvested olives should be set aside for the poor: “When thou beatest thine olive tree, thou shalt not go over the boughs again: it shall be for the stranger, for the fatherless, and for the widow” (Deuteronomy 24:20).

In what is now Israel, evidence has been found linking the origins of olive oil production to the Neolithic period, some 7000 years ago. Oil produced at this time was from wild olives; cultivation of domesticated species began some 1000 years later, during the Chalcolithic period.

Olive Oil Production

Olive oil is produced in three stages:
1. Crushing the olives into a paste which is transferred to special baskets
2. Pressing the paste, in later periods using specially designed presses.
3. Separation of the oil from the sap.

The Mishna calls this apparatus an oil press, but the Old Testament refers to oil and wine together in connection to wineries. “. . . and the vats shall overflow with wine and oil” (Joel 2:24). The winery symbolized liquids, while the granary symbolized dry products, mainly cereals.
Archeological studies show that in biblical times, oil was produced using methods identical to wine production methods. However in the Iron Age period, during the reigns of the Kings of Judah and Israel, sophisticated devices were used to produce oil. There were differences between oil presses in the north and south of the country.

Our span of knowledge regarding oil production during the Persian period is small, but we do know that a great change occurred during the Hellenistic period with the appearance of the round crushing basin. It is assumed that the device originated in Greece or Turkey, but the actual origins of this device are unknown.

The next development was the introduction of the “screw technique”. From references in literature of the period, it is apparent that the screw technique was in use during the Roman period. It first recorded appearance in the Middle East, however, was later, during the Byzantine period. Each area adapted the screw to devices already in use. By the end of the Byzantine period, various styles were in use all over the country. This situation continued in later periods – right up to the beginning of the 20th century, with each area using its own typical type of oil press.

Export
Olive oil produced in ancient Israel was considered to be of a very high quality. The olives themselves were also considered delicacies, as is pointed out by the Roman historian Pelinius “The olives of Hedcaopolis are very small, but their flesh is recommended. That is the reason why we prefer these imported olives to those of Italy”. It is natural to assume  that there was regular exportation of olives to Italy during the Roman period.